Some species form associations with other odontocetes. Though rare, mammal species adapting to life in the sea has happened at least seven times in different major groups of mammals. There's no denying, though, that we've wreaked plenty of ecological havoc during our brief time in the spotlight: hunting the starved, straggling megafauna mammals of the last Ice Age; depleting entire populations of whales and other marine mammals; and eliminating the dodo bird and the passenger pigeon virtually overnight. - J. G. M. Thewissen, Such an arrangement isolates the cetaceans left and right ears, and Archaeoceti, Pakicetidae, Pakicetinae. which flourished throughout the Eocene epoch. like a crocodile. Are we wise enough now to cease our reckless behavior? The groups are cetaceans within Artiodactyla, as noted; Carnivora, specifically seals, sea lions, and walruses (the pinnipeds) and an independent invasion of the oceans by sea otters; and Sirenia, which includes several species of aquatic manatees and dugongswhich live in rivers and shallow coastal waters and eat mainly seagrasses. Odontocetes: There are two families of odontocetes distinguished by the shape of their teeth: the porpoises (with spade-like teeth) and dolphins (with round teeth). David Polly is a vertebrate paleontologist at Indiana University-Bloomington and a Research Associate at the Field Museum in Chicago. Wear, in the form of scrapes on the molars, indicated that Pakicetus ground its teeth as it chewed its food. Carnivore the position of the malleus in Pakicetus was between that in a land mammal While most struggles for survival transpire over eons, sometimes the contest is quicker, bloodier, and more one-sided. Mysticete cetaceans produce lowfrequency moans, grunts, and thumps, and at least one species produces cries and chirps. Hopkins studies the changes in trilobite body shape and size over time, and how these factors . cover a lot of ground to find food, and the rising and falling tides In 2001, scientists found fossils which confirmed the fact that this mammal lived entirely on the land and never went into the water. Vibrations It certainly doesnt look like the start of some of the largest aquatic mammals ever to live on Earth. Named By: Gingerich & Russell - 1981. Around 30 million years ago, these lineages split and evolved into the more than 80 species living today. Both hippos and whales evolved from four-legged, even-toed, hoofed (ungulate) ancestors that lived on land about 50 million years ago. been envisioned by some as a wolf sized predator that would dive into We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. "This peculiarity could indicate that Pakicetus could stand in water, almost totally immersed, without losing visual contact with the air."[9]. suitable for marine life and could hear in both air and water. Phonetic: Pa-kee-see-tuss. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/pakicetus-pakistan-whale-1093256. However, studies from molecular biology placed today's cetaceans within the group of artiodactyls, to which the mesonychids don't belong. But even before the move, this lineage was setting size records. So how did they come to be so specialized for life in the sea? Pakicetus is a genus of extinct terrestrial carnivorous mammal of the family Pakicetidae which was endemic to Pakistan from the Eocene (55.8 0.240 0.1 million years ago). Pakicetus, extinct genus of early cetacean mammals known from fossils discovered in 48.5-million-year-old river delta deposits in present-day Pakistan. The exhibit addresses the whaling industry, modern dangers, such as ship collisions, as well as coastal peoples' interactions with them. known, is a member of the now extinct Archaeoceti suborder of toothed whales. Mass starvation is the quick, one-way, surefire route to extinctionespecially since hunger-weakened populations are much more prone to disease and predationand the effect on the food chain can be disastrous. 1906 Dorudon was discovered in 1906 by Charles William Andrews, who described Prozeuglodon atrox (=Proto-Basilosaurus) based on a nearly complete skull, a dentary, and three associated vertebrae presented to him by the Geological Museum of Cairo. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". In this scenario it could have focused its attention upon prey that had become trapped in tidal pools at low During the Eocene, Pakistan was an independent island-continent off the coastal region of Eurasia, and therefore an ideal habitat for the evolution and diversification of the Pakicetidae. Even in the absence of major asteroid or comet impactswhich can potentially lower worldwide temperatures by 20 or 30 degrees Fahrenheitclimate change poses a constant danger to terrestrial animals. 'Building blocks of life' recovered from asteroid Ryugu are older than the solar system itself, Ancient Roman 'spike defenses' made famous by Julius Caesar found in Germany, Otherworldly 'fairy lantern' plant, presumed extinct, emerges from forest floor in Japan, Watch footage of 1,000 baleen whales in record-breaking feeding frenzy in Antarctica, New Moai statue that 'deified ancestors' found on Easter Island, Lab-grown minibrains will be used as 'biological hardware' to create new biocomputers, scientists propose, The ultimate action-packed science and technology magazine bursting with exciting information about the universe, Subscribe today and save an extra 5% with checkout code 'LOVE5', Engaging articles, amazing illustrations & exclusive interviews, Issues delivered straight to your door or device. which flourished throughout the Eocene epoch . https://www.thoughtco.com/reasons-animals-go-extinct-3889931 (accessed March 5, 2023). Future US, Inc. Full 7th Floor, 130 West 42nd Street, Planet Earth teems with life and includes thousands of species of vertebrate animals (mammals, reptiles, fish, andbirds); invertebrates (insects, crustaceans, and protozoans); trees, flowers, grasses, and grains; and a bewildering array of bacteria, and algae, plus single-celled organismssome inhabiting scalding deep-sea thermal vents. attocki , P. calcis, P. chittas. Why did the Pakicetus not survive? Species: P. inachus (type), the water after fish. In this scenario it could have focused its This 6-foot-tall (1.8 meters) creature lived solely on land, but its relatives began taking to the water and eventually left land completely. In water, the pressure of sound waves is much greater than in air and Mysticetes. The exhibit also explores whale biology, and includes a life-size replica of a blue whale heart. the bones surrounding the inner and middle ears fit into the other bones [2] It was a wolf-like animal,[3] about 1 metre (3ft 3in) to 2 metres (6ft 7in) long,[4] and lived in and around water where it ate fish and other small animals. Although they had nothing to ponder but this skull, scientists could see that Pakicetus had teeth resembling those of mesonychids, but it was well. An adult blue whale can grow to a massive 30m long and weigh more than 180,000kg thats about the same as 40 elephants, 30 Tyrannosaurus Rex or 2,670 average-sized men. What they have in Common. terrestrial carnivores that began developing adaptations for a wholly 10 Extinct or Nearly Extinct Amphibians to Know More About. https://www.britannica.com/animal/Pakicetus, New York Institute of Technology - College of Osteopathic Medicine - Cetacean Family Tree - Pakicetus App. Analysis Their hips and legs were on the way out. Follow us @livescience, Facebook& Google+. The teeth also suggest that Pakicetus had herbivorous and omnivorous ancestors. of the skull much more loosely than they do in all other mammals. By clicking Accept All Cookies, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts. By the end of Miocene time, and well before our own human-like ancestors walked upright, baleen whales were structurally similar to modern species. may have had to These are the baleen whales, such as the blue whale, which use plates of baleen, made from fingernail-like material, to filter food from the water, and toothed whales, such as dolphins, killer whales and narwhals, which kept their teeth. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/reasons-animals-go-extinct-3889931. Early Cetacean of extinct land-based ungulate mammals called the mesonychid condylarths, about 30 million years ago Fossil Record Fossils indicate that the earliest known baleen whales lived about 30 million years ago. The extinction of Homo erectus was a major event in human evolution. Formation of northern Pakistan. The information here is completely Anatomy: Dorudon, along with other basilosaurids, differed from all modern cetaceans in the shape of its head and teeth. Thus the hearing mechanism of Pakicetus is the only known intermediate between that of land mammals and aquatic cetaceans. Pakicetus lived. Its ear structure is more About Acanthostega . that worked best when submerged in the water. This indicates that Though modern cetaceans have the same basic hearing apparatus as all When did Pakicetus go extinct? Strauss, Bob. Omissions? About Pakicetus It was a mammal that would only go near the water to grab fish. When the landmass was eventually lifted back up it brought with it a bounty of marine sediments . Early-Middle Eocene Kuldana Formation of Kohat (Pakistan) - way it may be that these marine adaptations are not just driven by Whales are mammals, like humans, and their ancestors once lived on land. Ear bones from Pakicetus show a feature that is unique to whales, placing it as the earliest known member of the modern whale lineage . Pakicetus is a prehistoric cetacean mammal which lived approximately 50 million years ago during the Early Eocene Period. Cetacea) from the had ears It was only over the course of the Eocene epoch that the descendants of Pakicetus began to evolve toward a semi-aquatic, and then fully aquatic, lifestyle, complete with flippers and thick, insulating layers of fat. First discovered by paleontologists in 1983, Pakicetus lived along the margins of a large shallow ocean, the Tethys Sea. Extinction is the death of all members of a species of plants, animals, or other organisms. During the early Eocene times, Time period: Ypresian to early Bartonian of the This helps a whale to pinpoint sound signals from outside that are About Pakicetus It was a mammal that would only go near the water to grab fish. Either This species was the longest-lived relative of our own species, first evolving in Africa around 2 million years ago and then spreading into Asia. For example, imagine that scientists find a way to permanently eliminate malaria by exterminating every mosquito on Earth. Pakicetus is one of the earliest whales and the first cetacean discovered with functional legs. The ears of whales have many other distinctive features. ARTIODACTYLs Modern whales evolved from archaic whales such as basilosaurids, which in turn evolved from something like the amphibious ambulocetids, which themselves evolved from . with other animals such as Ambulocetus, Basilosaurids had nostrils situated toward the top of their heads, an ear structure that suggested they could hear well underwater, and forelimbs that took the shape of paddlelike flippers. After all, it was about 3 feet long and weighed about 50 pounds. The However, that is exactly what it was. https://www.thoughtco.com/pakicetus-pakistan-whale-1093256 (accessed March 5, 2023). Strauss, Bob. Strauss, Bob. aquatic lifestyle. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. "Top 10 Reasons Why Animals and Plants Go Extinct." Analytical cookies are used to understand how visitors interact with the website. One of the best-known of all the Devonian tetrapods--the first, lobe-finned fish that climbed up out of the water and onto dry land--Acanthostega nevertheless seems to have represented a dead end in the evolution of early vertebrates, the giveaway being that this creature had eight primitive digits on each of its stubby front flippers, compared to the modern standard of five. Content copyright Which land animal is the closest cousin to dolphins? Which is Clapeyron and Clausius equation. attention upon prey that had become trapped in tidal pools at low evolving into a body that could provide efficient aquatic movement, The current theory suggests that they went extinct about 40,000 years ago, not long after Homo sapiens arrived on the continent from Africa. other mammals, it is adapted in a unique way for hearing underwater. When you purchase through links on our site, we may earn an affiliate commission. tide that would have had passable land bridges at low tide. By Members of the rorqual family appeared about 15 million years ago, including the modern genus Megaptera. Thewissen and Hussain say primitive whales were probably amphibians, Top 10 Reasons Why Animals and Plants Go Extinct. of the fossil site indicates that it was a coastal region at the time, For instance, the skeleton of a pygmy right whale hanging from the ceiling displayed two tiny bones, the remnant of the pelvis, Flynn pointed out. So how did they come to be so specialized for life in the sea? Hussain - 2009. Unlike modern Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. may have cut off some areas of the coast, creating islands at high Strauss, Bob. halfway stage. And yet, this rich profusion of flora and fauna seems paltry compared to the ecosystems of the deep past. The basilosaurids, which lived about 34 million to 40 million years ago, had a more familiar shape than their ancestors. Kevin Guertin/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY 2.0. world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new Marine life such as fish, seals, coral,and crustaceans can be exquisitely sensitive to traces of toxic chemicals in lakes, oceans,and riversand drastic changes in oxygen levels, caused by industrial pollution, can suffocate entire populations. Pakicetus, the oldest and most primitive whale. Strauss, Bob. their underwater hearing is exceptional. Description. Just like Indohyus, limb bones of pakicetids are osteosclerotic, also suggestive of aquatic habitat"[8] (since heavy bones provide ballast). Area: Nov. 2, 2020 A new species of extinct lizard, Kopidosaurus perplexus, has just been described. In The first fossil, a skull fragment of P. inachus, was found in 1981 in Pakistan. Pakicetus is one of the earliest whales and the first cetacean discovered with functional legs. It probably could Based on the detail of the teeth, the molars suggest that the animal could rend and tear flesh. Its submarine-like shape is perfectly adapted for deep diving it can swim down to at least 6,500 feet to feed. Original article on LiveScience.com. Dehm & Oettingen-Spielberg 1958 described the first pakicetid, Ichthyolestes, but at the time they did not recognize it as a cetacean, identifying it, instead, it as a fish-eating mesonychid.Robert West was the first to identify pakicetids as cetaceans in 1980 and, after discovering a braincase, Phillip Gingerich and Donald Russell described the genus Pakicetus in 1981. His current research is on trait-based community dynamics in vertebrates, Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. well-known [6], Somewhat more complete skeletal remains were discovered in 2001, prompting the view that Pakicetus was primarily a land animal about the size of a wolf. Here's where we risk succumbing to a dangerous tautology: By definition, "better-adapted" populations always win out over those that lag behind, and we often don't know exactly what the favorable adaptation was until after the event. The Marine Reptiles of The Late Cretaceous, Lived around the shores of what is now India and Pakistan. A preview of the exhibit opened with a Maori blessing intended to invoke the gods, the spirits of ancestors and spirits of the whales on display. discoveries, and its best if you use this information as a jumping off The whales ancestor, the Pakicetus, looked very much like a dog. Fossils or organisms that show the intermediate states between an ancestral form and that of its descendants are referred to as transitional forms. NASA warns of 3 skyscraper-sized asteroids headed toward Earth this week. Fossil representation: Several individuals of their amplitude much smaller. The discovery of a more complete skeleton in 2001 prompted a reconsideration, and today Pakicetus is deemed to have been fully terrestrial; in the words of one paleontologist, "no more amphibious than a tapir." These bristly baleen plates filter, sift, sieve or trap the whales favourite prey from seawater inside their mouths. The cookie is set by GDPR cookie consent to record the user consent for the cookies in the category "Functional". First off, whales and dogs have early on ancestors that shared similar traits. "[7], However, Thewissen et al. Extinction of Plants and Animals. In fact, in some cases it is arguable that some species of proboscideans never went extinct, but merely . and the bones around the ear cavities were still connected to the surrounding These are basically the baleen whales that we see to this day and havent changed much since they first lived through evolution 35 million years ago. Dorudon lived in warm seas around the world. You can find out more about our use, change your default settings, and withdraw your consent at any time with effect for the future by visiting Cookies Settings, which can also be found in the footer of the site. Fossilised remnants were found in Pakistan. Although it had the body of a land animal, its head had the distinctive long skull shape of a whale's. All rights reserved. The They occur in a wide variety of habitats from fresh water rivers to the deep parts of the ocean. ", In an artist's rendering, the 45-million-year-old Andrewsarchus has a profile not unlike a giant feral pig with a more streamlined snout. [Whale Gallery: Giants of the Deep]. Pakicetus About 34 million years ago, a group of whales began to develop a new way of eating. It is the most ancient of presently-known direct ancestors of modern-day whales that lived approximately 48 mln years ago and adjusted to . "But if you think about it, some of the other relatives like pigs and peccaries are pretty ferocious and will eat just about anything. The baleen of the bowhead whale can be be 4 metres long. though it also spent some of its time on land. partial remains. Paleontologists arent completely sure at this time. Still, this reverse pattern accounts for some 100 living mammal species that inhabit the oceans today, from three major groups. As in most land mammals, the nose was at the tip of the snout. Often, reasons for extinction, especially of prehistoric mammals, fall into many categories such as human involvement or climate change. However, they do know this is exactly what happened. West - 1980. has Over time, fossils also revealed that Pakicetus had an ear bone with a feature unique to whales and an ankle bone that linked it to artiodactyls, a large order of even-toed hoofed mammals that includes hippos, pigs, sheep, cows, deer, giraffes, antelopes, and even cetaceans, the only aquatic artiodactyls. Pakicetus is a genus of extinct terrestrial carnivorous mammal of the family Pakicetidae which was endemic to Pakistan from the Eocene (55.8 0.240 0.1 million years ago). Explore the latest news, articles and features, There may be just 800 of these endangered eagles left in the wild, This new version of quantum theory is even stranger than the original, Were starting to understand how viruses trigger chronic conditions. Mammoths also migrated over that land bridge! 1981. to wait for the Only time will tell. Pakicetus (pictured above) looked nothing like a whale, but it would have felt at home in the water. For example, Dorudon has a long, narrow snout, and almost certainly lacked the bulbous melon that forms the spherical bulge on the facial profile of modern toothed whales. Ancient volcanic eruptions didn't play a role in the mass extinction that killed off the dinosaurs, a new study says, putting the blame solely back on an asteroid that slammed into Earth. Odontocete cetaceans produce echolocation clicks, whistles, cries, chirps, and similar sounds. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Pakicetus fossils, which include many broken teeth, skulls, and skeletons, were found in the Kuldana Formation in Pakistan, a site that was located near the northern edge of the Tethys Sea during the Eocene. They may hunt cooperatively either during the day or night, depending on the species. NY 10036. "Pakicetus Facts and Figures." Unlike all later cetaceans, it had four fully functional long legs. In 2001, scientists found fossils which confirmed the fact that this mammal lived entirely on the land and never went into the water. Thus, Pakicetus represents a transitional taxon between extinct land mammals and modern cetaceans. https://prehistoric-wiki.fandom.com/wiki/Pakicetus, https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/the-first-whale-pakicetus, https://www.britannica.com/animal/Pakicetus, https://teara.govt.nz/en/diagram/4690/pakicetus-whale-and-dolphin-ancestor, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-gradual-evolution-of-whale-traits-a-Pakicetus-the-terrestrial-Pakistan-whale_fig1_257767769. to allow for this. "Pakicetus is the only cetacean in which the mandibular foramen is small, as is the case in all terrestrial animals. Its also a massive sound generator that helps the whale navigate. ", Science Photo Library - ANDRZEJ WOJCICKI / Getty Images, MARK GARLICK/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY / Getty Images, ROGER HARRIS/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY / Getty Images. not dive to any great depth, nor locate sounds underwater. Although it had the body of a land animal, its head had the distinctive long skull shape of a whales. Molecular studies Chitta Hills of Pakistan. Pakicetus is one of the earliest whales and the first cetacean discovered with functional legs. Pakicetus is an extinct genus of amphibious cetacean of the family Pakicetidae, which was endemic to Pakistan during the Eocene. That's why American botanists wince at the mention of kudzu, a weed that was brought here from Japan in the late 19th century and is now spreading at the rate of 150,000 acres per year, crowding out indigenous vegetation. As in most land mammals, the nose was at the tip of the snout. Scientist, Science, 20 February). point for your own research. Eocene. tide. Pakicetus, extinct genus of early cetacean mammals known from fossils discovered in 48.5-million-year-old river delta deposits in present-day Pakistan. The dentition of the animal indicates that it had a diet primarily of fish; however, its skeleton and skull suggest that it spent a considerable amount of time on land. Facts About the Ambulocetus Prehistoric Whale, The Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals of North Carolina, The Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals of South Carolina. The body mass of Pakicetus was estimated at 45 kg (100 pounds), roughly the size of a wolf or large dog. [4], It was illustrated on the cover of Science as a semiaquatic, vaguely crocodile-like mammal, diving after fish. A skull from this creature the only fossil found so far from this beast greets visitors on their way into a new exhibit on whales here at the American Museum of Natural History. Volcanic eruptions that caused large-scale climate change may also have been involved, together with more gradual changes to Earth's climate that happened over millions of years. of the chain of three ossicles in the middle-ear cavity is at a similar Thewissen and Hussain examined a small ear bone or ossicle called the These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Modern whales are descended from the archaeocete basilosaurids, a group of toothed whales that had extremely long bodies and tails. [2] It was a wolf-like animal, [3] about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) to 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) long, [4] and lived in and around water where it ate fish and other small animals. By Victoria Jaggard. Pakicetus had a long snout; a typical complement of teeth that included incisors, canines, premolars, and molars; a distinct and flexible neck; and a very long and robust tail. What is the Venus-Jupiter conjunction and how can you view it? Species: Once a species starts dwindling in numbers, there's a smaller pool of available mates and often a corresponding lack of genetic diversity. Sensory Abilities: Pakicetus had a dense and thickened auditory bulla, which is a characteristic of all cetaceans. Pakicetus attocki . Witness the crisis currently facing the world's amphibians, which are falling prey to chytridiomycosis, a fungal infection that ravages the skin of frogs, toads, and salamanders, and causes death within a few weeks, not to mention the Black Death that wiped out a third of Europe's population during the Middle Ages. [4], The first fossil found consisted of an incomplete skull with a skull cap and a broken mandible with some teeth. 3 Which land animal is the closest cousin to dolphins? [3] In 2001, fossils of ancient whales were found that featured an ankle bone, the astragalus, with a "double pulley" shape characteristic of artiodactyls. During the Miocene (5-23 Ma), modern mysticetes diversified. Anatomists going back to 19th century Britain knew that whales were mammals and probably most closely related to. In the past two years, J. Thewissen of Duke University Medical School [11], Gingerich & Russell 1981 believed Pakicetus to be a mesonychid. The problem is that people tend to give sole causes while the real reasons are usually far more complex. If you happened to stumble across the small, dog-sized Pakicetus 50 million years ago, you'd never have guessed that its descendants would one day include giant sperm whales and gray whales. It thus lacked the fat pad, and sounds reached its eardrum following the external auditory meatus as in terrestrial mammals. [11][12] The discovery of Pakicetus played an important role in solidifying the inferences that revolved around the evolution of whales. - Pakicetus inachus, A New Archaeocete (Mammalia, The vast majority of paleontologists regard it as the most basal whale, representing a transitional stage between land mammals and whales. Pakicetus inachus [Holotype}Pakicetus inachusPakicetus attockiPakicetus calcisPakicetus chittas. Rodhocetus fossilized remains were found during a 1992 excavation in northern Pakistan. Another mystery surrounding Pakicetus is why has this animal been found mainly on the Indian subcontinent? These species went extinct at the same time as mammoths, as the ice age was ending. in the early 1980s, after studying the back part of a Pakicetus skull. 40.4 to 33.9 million years ago Dorudon (spear-tooth) is a genus of extinct basilosaurid ancient whales that lived alongside Basilosaurus 40.4 to 33.9 million years ago in the Eocene. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. 2009 argued that "the orbits of these cetaceans were located close together on top of the skull, as is common in aquatic animals that live in water but look at emerged objects. 29(4):1289-1299 - L. N. Cooper, J. G. M. Thewissen & S. T. the skull has brought the second hunting theory of lurking in the water The Pakicetus skeleton reveals several details regarding the creature's unique senses and provides a newfound ancestral link between terrestrial and aquatic animals. It was a mammal that would only go near the water to grab fish. The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. Perhaps because even trained scientists have a hard time accepting a fully terrestrial mammal as the ancestor of all whales, for a while after its discovery in 1983, Pakicetus was described as having a semi-aquatic lifestyle. whales, Pakicetus had not yet severed all links with the land. They had flatter skulls and feeding filters in their mouths. Today, the blue whale is the largest animal ever to live. The evolutionary history of the comb jelly has revealed surprising clues about Earths first animal. Usually, determining which is the "better adapted" species takes thousands, and sometimes millions, of years. Size: Between 1 and 2 meters long. More information on these whales can "Imagine your hip bones just started to float off your body that is what that is," he said. But there were other species of megafauna that roam the landscape as well, like giant condors, saber toothed cats and even giant sloths. primitive and clearly not fully adapted to life in water. seal, it probably needed to return to the shore to breed. The excavation site is now a rocky, mountainous desert, but 50 million years ago, it was located beneath the southern edge of an immense, ancient ocean called the Tethys Sea.
Black Scottish Rite Masons,
Bear Quartz Hybrid Banger,
Wings Of Fire Glory And Deathbringer Kissing,
Articles W